Demographic Transition Model

Demographic Transition Model by NCS
The Demographic Transition Model graphs Birth rate, Death rate and Natural Increase.  The word demographic simply means population, and transition relates to change.  Therefore this model proposes what should happen to a population over time and how it should CHANGE. If birth rate is greater than death rate the population will increase. If the death rate is greater than birth rate the population will naturally decrease. The greater the difference the greater the rate of Natural Increase. The rate of Natural Increase is much higher in developing countries of the world and many countries in MEDCs are actually experiencing population decline. The demographic transition model is set out in 5 stages and was based on the United Kingdom.  These can be seen below:
Major patterns and reasons for those patterns are summarised in the table below.
Stage 1 - High fluctuating Stage 2 population increase Stage 3 Population increase Stage 4 low fluctuating Stage 5 - ageing & decline UK in the past Pre 1780 1780 to 1880 1880 to 1940 Post 1940 2000+ Present examples Ethiopia Bolivia, India China Canada, USA Russia, Germany, Japan Birth rates High due to; 1. Cultural or religious beliefs encouraging large families 2. Lack of contraception 3. Parents have lots of children to compensate for high Infant mortality 4. Children work on the land As stage 1 Start to decline due to; a) Increased access to contraception b) Infant mortality falls so there is less need to have a large family c) Industrialisation and mechanisation means less workers are required. d) Wealth increase and people are more materialistic, so want less children. Stay low because of reasons in stage 3. Are very low and the countries suffer from low fertility. Materialism and the desire for family size massively affect birth rates  Death rates High due to disease, Famine, poor diet and hygiene, little medical science. Start to decrease due to improvements in medical care, sanitation and water supply, supply and cleanliness of food. Continue to fall. developments such as underground sewers, medical developments such as penicillin, surgery such as heart bypasses and inoculations help. Stay low. Rise slightly as ageing people reach the end of their lives

Plate tectonics

The plates and plate margins

The Earth's crust is divided up into chunks of solid rock called tectonic plates.  they vary in size and the Earth's surface can be likened to that of a boiled egg which has been cracked.  The major plates include the Pacific, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, North American and South American, and the Indo-Australian.  There are other smaller plates however, such as the Philippines and Cocos plates.  The plates are made up of different materials, and there are 2 broad types:

Continental crust is thicker, older and lighter, and is composed mainly of Granite. It is 22 mi (35 km) thick on average and less dense than oceanic crust, which accounts for its mean surface elevation of about 3 mi (4.8 km) above that of the ocean floor. Continental crust is more complex than oceanic crust in its structure and origin and is formed primarily at subduction zones at destructive plate margins.
 

Oceanic crust is younger and heavier, and is mainly composed of basalt and Gabbro.  it is mainly formed at constructive margins or spreading mid ocean ridges.

Analysis of seismic waves passing through the Earth's crust has revealed this to us. You can watch the break up of Pangea here, and watch predicted futures movements of the Earth's plates here.Back to the top

Volcanoes and earthquakes mainly occur along plate boundaries where magma can escape from the earth’s mantle or where stresses build up between 2 plates rubbing together. An exception to this includes Hawaii, which is found in the middle of the Pacific plate over a hot spot. Examples of plate margin types are linked to the map. 

 

4 Types of plate margins

 

1. Constructive Margins

 

At these type of plate margins two plates are moving apart  from each other in opposite directions.  Convection currents moving in opposite directions (caused by the intense heat of the Earth's interior) in the mantle move two plates apart.  As these plates move apart this leaves cracks and fissures, lines of weakness, that allows magma from the mantle to escapes from the highly pressurised interior of the planet. This magma fills the gap and eventually erupts onto the surface and cools as new land.  this can create huge ridges of undersea mountains and volcanoes such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and where these mountains poke above the level of the sea islands are created.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes can result at these margins, the earthquakes caused by the movement of magma through the crust. A really good example of this is the mid Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian plate moves away from the North American plate at a rate of around 4cm per year.  Iceland owes its existence to this ridge. Watch an animation of this process here.

 

2. Destructive Margins

At these margins 2 plates move  together and the Destruction of some of the Earth's crust results.  An oceanic plate (denser) is pushed towards a continental plate (less dense) by convection currents deep within the Earth's interior. The oceanic plate is subducted (pushed under) the continental plate at what is called a subduction zone, creating a deep ocean trench.  It is the Oceanic crust which sinks down into the mantle because it is denser (heavier). As it descends friction, increasing pressure and heat from the mantle melt the plate.  Some of this molten material can work its way up through the continental crust through fissures and cracks in the crust to collect in magma chambers.  This is often some distance from the margin where magma can eventually re-emerge at the surface to create a range of mountains.  The movement of the plates grinding past one another can create earthquakes, when one plate eventually slips past the other releasing seismic energy. There are several really good examples of Destructive plate margins, including along the West coast of the Americas and Japan, where the Philippines sea plate is pushed under the Eurasian plate. Watch an animation of this process here.

 

3. Collision margins.

Fold mountains occur near convergent or compressional plate boundaries. Examples of fold mountains include the Alps, Rockies, Andes and Himalayas.

Formation and characteristics

The formation of fold mountains

The formation of fold mountains

1. Where an area of sea separates two plates, sediments settle on the sea floor in depressions called geosynclines. These sediments gradually become compressed into sedimentary rock.
2. When the two plates move towards each other again, the layers of sedimentary rock on the sea floor become crumpled and folded.
3. Eventually the sedimentary rock appears above sea level as a range of fold mountains.

Where the rocks are folded upwards, they are called anticlines. Where the rocks are folded downwards, they are called synclines. Severely folded and faulted rocks are called nappes 

4. Conservative margins

At conservative margins mountains are not made, volcanic eruptions do not happen and crust is not destroyed.  Instead, 2 plats either slide past each other in opposite directions, or 2 plates slide past each other at different speeds. As they move past each other stress energy builds as the plates snag and grind on one another. When this stress energy is eventually released it sends shock waves through the earth’s crust. We know these shock waves as earthquakes, and a good example of this is the San Andreas fault in California, where the Pacific plate is moving NW at a faster rate than the North American plate.

 

SUSTAINABLE / ECOTOURISM

People responsible for tourist sites are looking to manage them in sustainable ways. Sustainable methods include limiting visitor numbers to prevent damage, as used at the Pyramids in Egypt.
Sustainable tourism is tourism attempting to have a low impact on the environment and local culture, while helping to generate future employment for local people. The aim of sustainable tourism is to ensure that development brings a positive experience for local people, tourism companies and the tourists themselves. The guidelines focus on 4 main areas:

1. Maximizing tourism’s social and economic benefits to local communities;
2. Reducing negative impacts on cultural heritage;
3. Reducing harm to local environments;
4. Planning for sustainability.

 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN URBAN AREAS:

• Recycling Bins
• Enforced fines for littering
• Pedestrianised areas
• Cheap public transport
• Bike hire
• Promote local hotels and shops
• Reduce electricity and water waste by educating tourists
• Ensure locals can also afford to visit nationally visit historic sites. Many countries run dual pricing, where tourists pay more than locals to visit sites.
• Possible introduce quotas or curfews to protect areas.
• Ensure locals are not priced out of local market - try and maintain traditional mix of residents, tourists, businesses, etc.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS:

• Banning of plastic bags (very harmful to turtles who mistake them for jellyfish)
• Avoid light pollution near turtle nesting sites. Baby turtles are often confused by light and struggle to find the sea (normally they use the light from the horizon)
• Avoid sewage being pumped into the sea
• Promote sustainable diving (possible introduce quotas like in Sipadan in Malaysia)
• Avoid privatisation of beaches. Ensure that locals can also use the beach
• Stop trade in coral, turtles shells, etc.
• Ensure that seafood is caught from sustainable sources. In Japan, sustainable sushi is being introduced to protect blue fin tuna, whales, etc.
• Minimise damage to mangroves, dunes, forests, etc. when building resorts.
• Ensure proper boating channels to avoid injury and death to turtles, manatees, etc. from speed boats and jet skis.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN NATIONAL PARKS:

• Create National Parks to protect flora and fauna
• Reforest areas that have been damaged or logged
• Ensure that no illegal logging takes place
• Stop poaching (catching wild animals) by making it illegal and enforcing with strong penalties.
• Only allow low impact activities e.g. walking, horse riding.
• Start breeding and reintroduction programmes e.g. the giant panda in China.
• Only allow small scale developments using locals products to build the small-scale low-impact developments e.g. basic cabins or just tents
• Use renewable energy sources e.g. local HEP
• Ensure no non-biodegradable products are released into local water sources or the ground
• Educate tourists about flora and fauna and the importance of protection.
• Give flora and fauna and economic value, making animals more valuable a live than dead. In Rwanda tourists now pay $500 to see mountain gorillas. This has completely stopped poaching because the mountain gorillas are now more valuable alive than dead.
• ECOTOURISM
  Ecotourism encourages visitors to a country to leave a small carbon footprint, to the benefit of local communities and environments. It has become an increasingly popular option for many people.
  Ecotourism is a type of sustainable development. The aim of ecotourism is to reduce the impact that tourism has on naturally beautiful environments. Any tourist destination can be harmed by increased levels of tourism. If areas are damaged or destroyed, they might not be available to future generations.
  THE ECOTOURISM APPROACH IS:
  
  • Ensuring that tourism does not exploit the natural environment or local communities.
  • Consultation with local communities on planned developments.
  • Making sure that infrastructure improvements benefit local people and not just tourists.
  GUIDLINES FOR ECOTOURISTS:
  Ecotourism sets out guidelines for how tourists should behave when visiting fragile environments:
  
  • Protect the environment - keep to footpaths, don't leave litter or start fires.
  • Don't interfere with wildlife - don't scare or feed the animals.
  • Protect resources - don't take too many showers or use air conditioning.
  • Support local communities - stay in locally owned accommodation and buy produce from local people.
  • Eat local food and drink - avoid products that have been imported from MEDCs.
  • Respect local customs and traditions - some communities are offended when tourists wear inappropriate clothes in religious places, strip off on the beach or behave in a rowdy manner. Locals appreciate tourists who try to learn the language and show an interest in their culture.
  Ecotourism is increasingly popular and many people appreciate remote locations, small numbers of tourists and less sophisticated facilities (Kenya, Uganda, Amazon Rainforest etc). If a resort becomes overdeveloped then they will choose alternative destinations.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  HONEYPOT SITES
  A honeypot is a particularly popular visitor attraction which attracts tourists (and sometimes locals) in large numbers. The term 'honeypot' originates from bees buzzing around a hive.
  Honeypots are frequently used by cities or countries to manage their tourism industry. The use of honeypots can protect fragile land away from major cities while satisfying tourists.
  One such example is the construction of local parks to prevent tourists from damaging more valuable ecosystems farther from their main destination. Honeypots have the added benefit of concentrating a large number of income-generating visitors in one place, thus developing that area, and in turn making the area more appealing to tourists. However, honeypots can suffer from problems of overcrowding, including litter, crime, and strain on facilities and transport networks. Honeypots attract tourists because of parking spaces, shopping centres, parks and public toilets.
  Examples in the United Kingdom include Keswick in the Lake District, Lulworth Cove in Dorset, and Castleton in the Peak District.
  

Blackpool: The Development of a Tourist Destination (excerpt)

TOURISM

Key areas of study for this question:

• What is tourism?
• Why and how tourism has grown and changed?
• Butlers Model
• Advantages and disadvantages of tourism
• Tourism in Dubai
• Tourism in the Lake District National Park
• Tourism in Blackpool (UK coastal)
• Tourism in Kenya (Tropical case-study)
• Tourism in Antarctica (Extreme environments)
• Conflicts created by tourism
• Sustainable/Ecotourism
• Alternate Futures

WHY AND HOW TOURISM HAS GROWN AND CHANGED?

Tourism is the world's largest and fastest growing industry, with a turnover of around £450 billion. Until recently, it was an activity which largely concentrated in the richer, MEDC countries of the world, but it is increasingly becoming an important source of income in LEDC's.
Tourism has changed considerably in the last 40 years. Not only has there been a dramatic increase in tourism numbers, but there is now a wider range of holiday destinations. People also seem to be travelling further, and more often than ever before. There are several reasons for these changes.

BUTLERS MODEL

The history of tourism in the UK provides an example - or model - of how a tourist industry might develop in any particular nation.
Butler developed a model which shows how any tourist resort may grow. A resort may start off from being a small, low key, destination. He suggests that all resorts go through the same sort of process.
The 7 stages of tourist development:

1. Exploration - A small number of tourists visit the area. The area is unspoilt and few tourist facilities exist.
2. Involvement - Local people start to provide some facilities for tourists. There starts to become a recognised tourist season.
3. Development - The host country starts to develop and advertise the area. The area becomes recognised as a tourist destination.
4. Consolidation - The area continues to attract tourists. The growth in tourist numbers may not be a fast as before. Some tensions develop between the host and the tourists.
5. Stagnation - The facilities for the tourists may decline as they become old and run down. The numbers of tourists may decline too.
6. Rejuvenation - Investment and modernisation may occur which leads to improvements and visitor numbers may increase again.
7. Decline - If the resort is not rejuvenated (stage 6) then it will go into decline. People lose their jobs related to tourism. The image of the area suffers.

BUTLERS MODEL AND BLACKPOOL

Blackpool was originally a small fishing village on the north west coast, however today it is one of the most popular coastal resorts in the UK.

1860s: Arrival of the railway from Manchester brought thousands of people for a day out at the seaside – closest coast to the city

1900s: hotels and tourist entertainment facilities built so people could spend longer at the resort

1920s: development of cars and coaches brought people from inland cities. Resort grew.

1950s: increasing wealth and paid holidays meant huge numbers of people coming to the resort for a week or fortnight holiday.

1960s: Pleasure Park developed with some of the most exciting thrills & rides in Britain

1970s: cost of Package Holidays to Spain were coming down, so fewer tourists coming to Blackpool for their main holiday – but still many weekend and day visitors

1990s: Keeps putting in new rides and gets celebrities to open the Blackpool Illuminations each September & develops new plans

2010s: Has become the ‘Hen Party/ Stag Party’ focus for Britain – also a major Conference Centre. Voted the most popular coastal resort in Britain.

 

There has also been big changes in the distance people are willing to travel, the time of year people take holidays and the nature of the holidays taken.

• Distant places like Florida, Kenya, Thailand and even Antarctica have become potential tourist destinations.
• Ski resorts, once exclusive to the rich attract increasing numbers of tourists.
• There has been a massive growth in 'short breaks' e.g. city breaks for a long weekend.
• There has been a growth in the number of purpose built resorts, such as Center Parks, which houses extensive indoor facilities that are not dependent on the weather.
• There has also been a growth in business tourism, including international business meetings and weekend conferences.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF TOURISM:

• Since the 1950's people have become wealthier.
• Incomes are larger and so is disposable income (the amount left to spend after essentials such as food and bills).
• Most families have two working parents where as in the past it was usually one.
• People have fewer children: less expensive to take a smaller family away than a large one.
• Car ownership has grown.
• People have more leisure time and holiday time from work has increased.
• Life expectancy has risen so more people are retired many of whom have good pensions and can afford several trips a year.
• Travel today is quick and easy due to motorways, airport expansion and faster jet aircraft.
• Low cost airlines like Easyjet reduces the cost of flying.
• Flying has become cheaper and booking online is quick and easy.
• Increasing number of package holidays now available to destinations all over the world.
• Ecotourism and unusual destinations such as Alaska and Kenya are expanding rapidly.